HEALTH LITERACY · EVIDENCE TOOL
Association is not causation
Two conditions can occur together without one being proven to directly cause the other.
What association means
Researchers observed a pattern or statistical relationship between two factors in the studied data.
Why patterns occur
Shared risk factors, behaviour, social circumstances, treatment, measurement or chance may contribute to an association.
What causation requires
A causal conclusion requires stronger evidence, plausible mechanisms and careful testing of alternative explanations.
How to communicate it
Use wording such as “associated with” when the evidence does not establish that changing one factor will directly change the other.
TAKEAWAY
Association is a reason to investigate—not permission to overstate.
For education only. This resource does not replace individual clinical advice.